Social patterning of childhood overweight in the French national ELFE cohort.

An inverse social gradient in early childhood overweight has been consistently described in high-income countries; however, less is known about the role of migration status. We studied the social patterning of overweight in preschool children according to the mother's socio-economic and migration background. For 9250 children of the French ELFE birth cohort with body mass index collected at age 3.5 years, we used nested logistic regression to investigate the association of overweight status in children with maternal educational level, occupation, household income and migration status. Overall, 8.3% (95%CI [7.7-9.0]) of children were classified as overweight. The odds of overweight was increased for children from immigrant mothers (OR 2.22 [95% CI 1.75-2.78]) and descendants of immigrant mothers (OR 1.35 [1.04-2.78]) versus non-immigrant mothers. The highest odds of overweight was also observed in children whose mothers had low education, were unemployed or students, or were from households in the lowest income quintile. Our findings confirm that socio-economic disadvantage and migration status are risk factors for childhood overweight. However, the social patterning of overweight did not apply uniformly to all variables. These new and comprehensive insights should inform future public health interventions aimed at tackling social inequalities in childhood overweight.

Measuring Child Socio-Economic Position in Birth Cohort Research: The Development of a Novel Standardized Household Income Indicator.

The assessment of early life socioeconomic position (SEP) is essential to the tackling of social inequalities in health. Although different indicators capture different SEP dimensions, maternal education is often used as the only indicator in birth cohort research, especially in multi-cohort analyses. Household income, as a direct measure of material resources, is one of the most important indicators, but one that is underused because it is difficult to measure through questionnaires. We propose a method to construct a standardized, cross-cohort comparable income indicator, the "Equivalized Household Income Indicator (EHII)", which measures the equivalized disposable household income, using external data from the pan-European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EUSILC) surveys, and data from the cohorts. We apply this method to four studies, Piccolipiù and NINFEA from Italy and ELFE and EDEN from France, comparing the distribution of EHII with other SEP-related variables available in the cohorts, and estimating the association between EHII and child body mass index (BMI). We found that basic parental and household characteristics may be used, with a fairly good performance, to predict the household income. We observed a strong correlation between EHII and both the self-reported income, whenever available, and other individual socioeconomic-related variables, and an inverse association with child BMI. EHII could contribute to improving research on social inequalities in health, in particular in the context of European birth cohort collaborative studies.

Health insurance coverage is the single most prominent socioeconomic factor associated with cardiovascular drug delivery in the French population.

OBJECTIVE: Although the French population benefits from universal health coverage, prescribed drugs are in most cases only partially reimbursed by the national insurance plan (65% of the cost), raising the possibility of reduced drug access for patients with low socioeconomic status. METHODS: To explore this question, the delivery of cardiovascular drugs in relation to socioeconomic position was analysed in a cross-sectional survey of a nationally representative sample of patients with cardiovascular condition (n = 4646). RESULTS: Among eight socioeconomic indicators and after adjustment for healthcare needs, only health coverage is independently associated with cardiovascular drug delivery, which is reduced by half [odds ratio (95% confidence interval): 0.54 (0.39-0.74), P = 0.0001] in patients partially covered by universal health insurance compared with those fully covered by supplemental insurance. This reduced delivery in patients with partial health coverage seems to apply to all cardiovascular drug classes as it is observed for both antihypertensive and hypolipemic drugs when these classes are tested separately. Although physician access is also reduced in patients with partial health coverage [0.54 (0.40-0.75), P = 0.0002], this does not explain the decreased delivery of cardiovascular drugs that is still observed [0.59 (0.43-0.82), P = 0.001] after further adjustment for the number of physician visits during the survey. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that health insurance coverage has a prominent role among socioeconomic factors in determining the delivery of prescribed medications as essential as cardiovascular drugs in the French population. They emphasize that full health coverage should remain a priority for public health policies in this country.

Low back pain around retirement age and physical occupational exposure during working life.

BACKGROUND: Physical occupational exposure is a risk factor for low back pain in workers but the long term effects of exposure remain unclear. As several countries consider increasing the retirement age, further information on this topic is relevant. This study aimed to describe the prevalence of low back pain among middle aged and aging individuals in the general French population according to physical occupational exposure and retirement status. METHODS: The study population originated from the French national survey 'Enquête décennale santé 2002'. Low back pain for more than 30 days within the previous twelve months (LBP) was assessed using a French version of the Nordic questionnaire. Occupational exposure was self assessed. Subjects were classified as "exposed" if they were currently or had previously been exposed to handling of heavy loads and/or to tiring postures. The weighted prevalence of LBP was computed separately for men and women, for active (aged 45-59) and retiree (aged 55-74), according to 5-year age group and past/present occupational exposure. RESULTS: For active men, the prevalence of LBP was significantly higher in those currently or previously exposed (n = 1051) compared with those never exposed (n = 1183), respectively over 20% versus less than 11%. Among retired men, the prevalence of LBP tended towards equivalence with increasing age among those previously exposed (n = 748) and those unexposed (n = 599).Patterns were quite similar for women with a higher prevalence in exposed active women (n = 741) compared to unexposed (n = 1260): around 25% versus 15%. Similarly, differences between previously exposed (n = 430) and unexposed (n = 489) retired women tended to reduce with age. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of LBP in active workers was associated with occupational exposure. The link with past exposure among retirees decreased with age. These results should be considered for policies dealing with prevention at the workplace and retirement.

Subtle health impairment and socioeducational attainment in young adult patients with congenital hypothyroidism diagnosed by neonatal screening: a longitudinal population-based cohort study.

CONTEXT: Screening programs resulting in the early treatment of patients with congenital hypothyroidism (CH) have successfully improved neurodevelopmental outcome, but little is known about long-term health. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to assess health status, and socioeconomic attainment, for a population-based registry of young adult patients. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: All 1748 eligible patients diagnosed during the first decade after the introduction of neonatal screening in France were invited to participate in this study at a median age of 23.4 yr. Completed questionnaires were obtained from 1202 of the selected patients. The comparison group included 5817 subjects from the last French Decennial Health Survey. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Health indicators including medical conditions, hearing and visual status, sociodemographic characteristics, and quality of life were measured. RESULTS: Patients with CH were significantly more likely than their peers to report associated chronic diseases (5.7 vs. 2.9%), hearing impairment (9.5 vs. 2.5%), visual problems (55.4 vs. 47.9%), and being overweight with a body mass index of at least 25 kg/m(2) (22.8 vs. 15.7%) (P < 0.0001). Furthermore, fewer patients attained the highest socioeconomic category (14.6 vs. 23.1%) and were in full-time employment (39.9 vs. 44.8%) (P < 0.0001). They were more likely to still be living with their parents and had a lower health-related quality of life than their healthy peers, particularly for mental dimensions, with a mean difference for the mental summary component of 0.35 SD score (P < 0.0001). CH severity at diagnosis, treatment adequacy, and the presence of other chronic health conditions were the main determinants of educational achievement and health-related quality of life scores. CONCLUSION: These findings highlight the need for careful monitoring of neurosensory functioning, weight, and long-term treatment adequacy throughout childhood and adulthood.

Level of education and back pain in France: the role of demographic, lifestyle and physical work factors.

PURPOSE: To investigate the pathways from level of education to low back pain (LBP) in the adult population, especially concerning the role of physical working constraints, and personal factors (overweight, tobacco consumption, and tallness). METHODS: The study population consisted of 15,534 subjects from the National Health Survey, with data on LBP, level of education, personal factors, and physical working constraints. Logistic models for LBP (pain more than 30 days during the previous 12 months) were compared in order to check the consistency of the data with specific causal pathways. RESULTS: Low back pain was strongly associated with level of education. This association was almost completely explained if present or past exposure to tiring work postures and handling of heavy loads were taken into account. For men, the OR for "no diploma", adjusted only for age, was 1.75; it was 1.02 after additional adjustment on physical work factors. Personal factors played also a role, especially overweight for women. Among them, the OR associated with a body mass index = 27 or more was 1.58 after adjustment on all the other factors. CONCLUSIONS: In this national population the main pathways from education to LBP were through occupational exposure and lifestyle factors.

Costs of stroke care according to handicap levels and stroke subtypes.

BACKGROUND: If new advances in stroke management are to be put into practice, crucial information about their costs needs to be considered in relation to clinically pertinent variables (e.g. handicap level and stroke subtypes). Details of costs throughout the entire period of stroke care are essential in the political decision-making process, in order to avoid other budget-balancing approaches, which are not always satisfactory. Our aim was to perform an in-depth evaluation of the direct medical cost of stroke care in a large cohort. METHODS: We included 435 consecutive patients with brain infarction in 12 primary-care and referral neurology departments. Information on acute care was prospectively collected. Information on postacute care was collected by research nurses' visits to the patient's or a relative's home 18-40 months after the stroke onset. We thus collected detailed information on handicap levels, stroke subtypes, acute hospitalization costs, rehabilitation, nursing care and ambulatory costs. This enabled us to calculate costs over an 18-month period after the initial acute hospital discharge. RESULTS: By the 12th month after discharge, the costs amounted to 17,799 euros (16,440-19,158) per patient; the initial hospitalization accounted for 42% of this cost, rehabilitation for 29% and ambulatory care for 8%. These costs were mostly concentrated within the first 3- to 6-month period. After 46 months without recurrence, the cost of ambulatory care outweighed the cost of the first 6 months. Handicap levels explained 43% of the variance of costs (p < 0.0001) and, according to the Rankin scale divided into 3 classes (0-2, 3 and 4-5), cumulative costs over time differed considerably. Stroke subtypes were not discriminating variables except for lacunar strokes, which were significantly less costly than the other groups. CONCLUSIONS: By providing a fairly comprehensive figure for the details of direct costs of stroke care over time, our study gives some clues about the economic burden of stroke care which is mostly driven by a high handicap level. This suggests that any early intervention aimed at reducing the handicap level will probably dramatically reduce this burden.

Lack of multiplicative transitivity in person trade-off responses.

BACKGROUND: The person trade-off (PTO) is a technique for eliciting preferences for resource allocation across patient groups. In principle PTO responses should satisfy a requirement of multiplicative transitivity, i.e. that if people consider treatment of 1 in state A to be equivalent to treating 10 in state B, and 1 in state B to be equivalent to 10 in state C, then they should find 1 in state A equivalent to 100 in state C. Earlier studies addressing labelled diseases (specific diagnoses), have shown multiplicative intransitivity of the PTO responses. Our purpose was to test multiplicative transitivity in the case of health states described with the EuroQol instrument only and to find a possible framing effect such as the number of persons in the reference intervention. METHODS: Forty-four master degree students were asked to fill in a questionnaire addressing four chronic health states. Their task consisted in (1). ranking the states by severity, (2). valuing each of them by the means of the time trade-off, and (3). doing the PTO for all the 10 possible pairwise combinations of the four chronic states plus a fatal one. In a subsequent questionnaire the number of persons in the reference intervention in the PTO was increased from 10 to 100. Multiplicative transitivity was studied in subjects who demonstrated a willingness to trade off and consistency in ranking individual values. RESULTS: None of the 39 subjects included satisfied a minimum multiplicative transitivity requirement in PTO responses. Internal consistency was not improved when the PTO involved health states close to each other in terms of severity, nor when the prevention of death was not the reference intervention. For the 22 subjects having answered both types of questionnaire, increasing the number of persons in the reference intervention did not improve multiplicative transitivity. CONCLUSIONS: The PTO holds promise as a useful method for determining social preferences for priority setting, inasmuch as it captures distributive concerns that individual utility techniques such as the time trade-off do not address. But the lack of multiplicative transitivity in PTO responses is unsatisfactory, and ways to reduce this problem need to be explored.

Socioeconomic aspects of postacute care for patients with brain infarction in France.

BACKGROUND: In France, the socioeconomic aspects of stroke have never been addressed. Such analyses are essential for health authorities to justify the establishment of new stroke units when resources are low, provided it can be shown that stroke units are effective in reducing both the morbidity and mortality of stroke. Only 6 dedicated stroke services exist for 60 million inhabitants in France. Our aim was to study acute and postacute pathways and to determine the factors that influence destination after discharge, handicap evolution and costs. METHODS: In a cohort of 494 consecutive patients with brain infarction, we collected information on medical and socioeconomic variables, handicap and its evolution using the modified Rankin scale and Mini-Mental Status score at the 10th day, 6th month and 18th-40th month. These data were recorded during the initial hospital stay, at the follow-up clinic visit and in a home interview done 18-40 months after discharge by research nurses. We used multiple logistic regression for analyses. RESULTS: The most important factor for not returning home was having a Rankin score greater than 3 with an odds ratio of 41.7 (95% confidence interval 19.2-90.0; p = 0.001). Multivariate analysis showed that when the Rankin score was 0, 1 or 2, the main factors for not returning home were socioeconomic variables and serious medical disorders. When the Rankin score was 4 or 5, the main reason for not being sent for rehabilitation was medical status. After adjustment for the Rankin score, patients who returned home or were transferred to rehabilitation were quite similar regarding socioeconomic and medical variables. Other patients transferred to a geriatric ward, nursing home or new housing were more frequently living alone, 60 years of age or older, had less than 2 children, low level of education, dementia or cancer. Overall, the mean cost was 19,513 Euros over an 18-month period and was mainly driven by the level of the Rankin score (e.g. 10,530 vs. 34,809 Euros for Rankin scores of 0-1 and 4-5, respectively). CONCLUSION: These data showed that not only handicap level but also socioeconomic variables are important in determining the destination of stroke patients after discharge. They may help health authorities to make decisions to establish new approaches to treat stroke. This study can also serve as a basis for future cost-effectiveness studies of new drugs being evaluated in therapeutic trials or of new management strategies of stroke patients.